Acca Question Essay

Theory Introduction, basic probability theory, definition, laws of probability, conditional probability, independent and dependent events, applications. Unit No. 2Random Variables Introduction, Random numbers and their generation, Application of random numbers, concepts of random variables and their construction, Discrete and continuous random variables. Unit No. 3Equations Solving fist degree equations, Quadratic equations, Solution of quadratic equations by different methods, inequalities, absolute value, Co-ordinate system Unit No. 4Linear Equations Characteristic of linear equations, Slope- intercept form, determining the equations, Applications. Unit No. 5Matrices and Determinants Matrices, Different kinds of Matrices, Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication of matrices, Determinants, Application of matrices and determinants. Unit No. 6Inverse of Matrices Expansion of determinants, different Properties of determinants, Cofactors and minors of elements of a matrix, Cramer’s rule, Solution of system of linear equations by use of matrices. Unit No. Differentiation Derivatives, Differentiation of explicit and implicit functions, maxima and minima, Applications of derivatives. Unit No. 8Partial Derivatives Partial Derivatives, maxima and minima for functions of multi-variables Applications of partial derivatives. Unit No. 9Optimization First derivative test. 2nd Derivative test, Curve sketching, Revenue, Cost and profit applications in business. Recommended Book:- 1. Applied mathematics for Busine ss, Economics and the Social Sciences. By Frank S. Budnick. Mcgraw-Hill

Bhopal Essay

This case was created by the International Dimensions of Ethics Education in Science and Engineering (IDEESE) Project at the University of Massachusetts Amherst with support from the National Science Foundation under grant number 0734887. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. More information about the IDEESE and copies of its modules can be found at http://www. mass. edu/sts/ethics.  © 2008 IDEESE Project. Bhopal Gas Disaster Chronology The timeline below documents the incidents leading up to and resulting from the 1984 Bhopal Plant Disaster. Use the key below to quickly find information on government measures relating to specific organizations, Indian national legislation, casualties, and economic conditions and profitability. A timeline documenting ensuing legislation can be found at the end of the main chronology. Key brown = central (India), state (Madhya Pradesh), or city (Bhopal) government measures relating specifically to UCC, UCIL, Bhopal plant, or immediate neighborhood of plant green = general India national legislation relevant to conduct of business red = casualty-producing plant incidents violet = economic conditions relevant to Bhopal plant profitability ___________________________________________________________________________ UCIL= Union Carbide (India) Limited UCC= Union Carbide Corporation 956 Indian Parliament adopts Companies Act of 1956 which requires affiliates of foreign companies to register as separate companies under Indian law and imposes limits on foreign investment and participation in all Indian companies. Union Carbide reduces its share of ownership in its Indian subsidiary (then called National Carbon Company (India) Limited from 100% to 60% in accordance with new Indian law by registering as an Indian company and selling shares to Indian citizens. All but one or two UCIL board members, all UCIL executives, and all regular or seasonal employees are Indian nationals. 1966 Indian market for fertilizers and pesticides is expanding as government adopts a range of policies, including efforts to increase yields and reduce post-harvest losses of crops to pests, to make India self-sufficient in food. India had depended heavily on outside food aid in earlier part of the decade, and government wished to end this. The domestic production of pesticides in 1966 is 14,000 metric tonnes, well short of what the government wants to supply to farmers. Union Carbide India Ltd (UCIL) establishes a new Agricultural Products Division to take advantage of growing Indian market for fertilizers and pesticides. Initial activity involves only local formulation (diluting â€Å"technical grade† concentrate to make products for sale to users). UCIL applies for license to carry out the whole production process in India. 2 of 19 1968 Government of India approves UCIL plans to build fertilizer/pesticide formulation plant in Bhopal. State of Madhya Pradesh leases land in the Kali Parade area of Bhopal for the plant to UCIL on a 99-year lease in an area zoned for industrial use. The area around plant is relatively unpopulated at time though there are two lakes nearby and the main Bhopal railroad station was about 2 miles from the plant site. Total population of City of Bhopal is estimated to be about 300,000 (the 1961 census put it at 102,000 but considerable in-migration from surrounding countryside had occurred). Adoption of India’s 4th five-year plan, to run 1969-74. Plan goals include reducing â€Å"unwholesome dependency on foreign agencies,† particularly foreign corporations. The Plan outlines goals of requiring foreign investors to enter into joint ventures rather than establish wholly-owned subsidiaries, and reaffirms requirements to train and employ Indian nationals at all levels of operation, to use made-in-India equipment and components whenever they are available, and to transfer technology to Indian affiliates. These requirements meant that the government was strongly interested in having chemical plants located within the country develop capacity to undertake all steps from raw material through intermediate chemicals through final product on-site rather than relying on imported intermediates. 969 Bhopal plant begins operating. Initial operations consisted of making raw fertilizer and formulating (diluting to usable strengths) pesticides with US-origin â€Å"technical grade† chemical concentrates. UCIL industrial chemists develop a method of producing alpha-napthol that UCIL anticipates being able to scale up to economically competitive prod uction volumes. UCIL is reconsidering its business plan as the large-scale making of alpha-napthol turns out to be more challenging than it anticipated. Government of India begins pressing UCC and UCIL to have UCIL plants shift from formulation using US-source chemicals to full production in India. It makes issuing an operating license for the Bhopal plant conditional on its using domestically-made alpha-napthol. Government of India establishes National Committee for Environmental Planning and Coordination. 1970 1972 1973 Indian Parliament adopts Foreign Exchange Regulation Act 1973. Among other strong controls on flows of money in and out of India it establishes a scheme for government control over Indian firms’ decisions on hiring foreigners as employees or contractors. Indian Government approves UCC-UCIL Design Transfer Agreement and Technical Services Agreement under which UCC will provide the basic process design of a plant capable of producing SEVIN (a carbaryl pesticide used on cotton and other crops) and training for Indian operators of plant. Design Transfer Agreement limits UCC to provision of the process design and materials specification. Detailing the design and building the plant are to be undertaken by Indians nationals employed by or contracting with UCIL. Government also uses powers to license technology imports to guide selection of suppliers of components for plant to Indian firms as much as possible. 3 of 19 Engineers employed by UCIL who will be involved in plant design visit UCC Technical Center in West Virginia to earn about US plant specifications and start process of adapting them to India’s conditions. 1974 Indian Parliament adopts legislation requiring that Indian companies partly owned by foreigners reduce foreigners’ ownership share. For companies with 60% foreign ownership, the new legal maximum is 50. %. UCIL complies by the end of 1978 through sale of additional shares of stock offered only to Indians; these shares were held by 24,000 different persons or entities, with the Government of India itself holding 25% of UCIL stock. Indian Parliament adopts Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Acts. These establish the central government as the main standard-s etter while leaving enforcement to state governments. Both Acts increase penalties for causing pollution but do not specify any emissions or ambient standards. 975 New Master Plan for City of Bhopal establishes a separate district for â€Å"hazardous industry† in an open area 15 miles from center of town, and zone the area where UCIL’s plant has been constructed for commercial and light, non-hazardous, industry only. City authorities want UCIL to move its operations to this area. Indian Government licenses UCIL to produce up to 5,000 tons of carbaryl pesticides a year in Bhopal plant UCIL hires Humphreys and Glasgow Consultants Private Limited, an Indian subsidiary of Londonbased Humphreys and Glasgow, to detail the plant design and supervise construction. 976 Madhya Pradesh Town and Country Planning Board classifies the UCIL plant as â€Å"general industry† rather than â€Å"hazardous industry. † This allows plant to stay in its established location rath er than move to Bhopal’s new hazardous industry zone. Bhopal plant begins production of pesticides and begins $2. 5 million project to expand alphanapthol production unit to accommodate Sevin production. India hit by drought; farmers need loans from government to ride out the loss of harvests. They also cut back on pesticide purchases. 1978 Bhopal plant’s new alpha-napthol unit’s components fail soon after startup. 2 million reconstruction project begun. Production of pesticides continues using alpha-napthol imported from UCC’s US plants. 31 Oct 1977 4 of 19 UCC and UCIL decide to shift Bhopal plant to methyl isocyanite (MIC) process to produce SEVIN because parent UCC regarded this process as more economical and efficient than its previous way of producing it. New Bhopal MIC unit based on design of UCC’s MIC unit in Institute, West Virginia. (See separate page on alternative methods for production of SEVIN or similar carbamate pesticides. winter P rogress review of Bhopal project at UCC headquarters. Concerns about cost of building plant and reduced estimates of potential pesticide sales lead to consideration of whether Bhopal project can be scaled back. Decision is to continue as construction is too far advanced. Welding spark ignites nearby chemicals because welder unaware of and supervisor did not point out nearby flammables. Fire causes Rs. 6. 2 million ($730,000) in property damage, but no injuries to workers. 20 UCIL engineers sent to UCC’s West Virginia MIC plant for training in plant operation and safety. UCC engineers sent to India for pre-startup inspection of Bhopal plant report multiple deficiencies in safety measures. They also advise UCIL management of need to develop contingency plan for alerting and evacuating nearby population in event of major gas leak. UCIL management later reports it had developed such plans; city and state government officials claimed in 1984 that they were not aware of any such plans. UCC Eastern Division brings up question of Bhopal plant at a global strategy meeting because of concern that it, like Institute WV plant, is too large for the market. Proposals to export part of Bhopal plant’s production are not adopted because of potential negative effects on UCC subsidiaries in other countries. UCC sends 8 US engineers and technicians to Bhopal plant to assist with startup and early operation of MIC unit. 1980 Government loans to farmers come due. Farmers shift to less expensive pesticides. Many of the newer pesticides are synthetic pyrethroids that are also safer in Indian conditions than carbaryl types like Sevin. Indian Government upgrades National Committee for Environmental Planning to cabinet-level Department of Environment. Both national and most state governments (including Madhya Pradesh) have Pollution Control Boards to inspect and enforce environmental laws. March Government approves UCIL application to retain 1 UCC engineer through 31 May 1981; renews approval through 31 May 1982 and then to 31 December 1982. 7 of the 8 UCC engineers and technicians sent from West Virginia return home. The remaining engineer continues to serve as plant manager until June 1982, then remains as a consultant. 24 Nov 1978-79 1979 June 5 of 19 fall A second UCC engineer team visits the Bhopal plant and repeats warnings about ack of contingency plan. Rebuilt alpha-napthol unit started up; fails again and is shut down. Alpha-napthol imports continue. Bhopal plant returns a modest profit for the year. National census puts City of Bhopal population at 895,815. Significant populations of recent arrivals from the countryside have settled in shanty towns near UCIL plant. 1981 June UCIL/UCC review of Bhopal plant operation show s that the variable cost of producing alphanapthol in Bopal is 4x the US cost and the variable cost of producing SEVIN in Bhopal are 3. 5x US costs. UCC and UCIL are both aware that new-formula pesticides coming onto market in India and other countries are likely to reduce demand for SEVIN. UCC wants UCIL to import MIC from UCC plant in West Virginia; Government of India refuses permits because it wants the making of MIC undertaken in India. 24 Dec 1 supervisor and 2 workers exposed to phosgene leak during a maintenance operation; one of the workers dies from effects of phosgene inhalation. UCIL management says he was at fault for removing his gas mask; workers claim supervisors gave insufficient warnings. Accident reported to UCC; UCC response plan includes additional training and some design changes. 1982 uncertain 10 Feb Feb UCIL notes growth of shantytowns near the Bhopal plant and asks the city to establish a â€Å"greenbelt† zone around it to prevent further shantytown expansion. City does not act. 25 workers injured when a pump seal fails and significant quantities of MIC, phosgene, and hydrochloric acid gases escape into plant. Some treated on-site; 16 sent to local hospital Workers help a local journalist get into plant; he observes and writes about poor condition of plant and lax safety routines. Local newspaper publishes the story but its warnings that a massive leak is likely are ignored. India Labor Department investigates the Dec. 1981 fatal accident and recommends corrective measures. Bhopal plant is operating at less than half capacity because of weak market for its products. Local competitors making cheaper pesticides continue gaining market share. spring Either UCIL asks UCC to send engineering team to inspect plant, or UCC does on own initiative (accounts vary, usually consistently with author effort to show UCC was or was not in close control of plant during the post-disaster litigation). 6 of 19 2 April May 3 electricians suffer minor burns when one drops a screwdriver into an electrical panel and it shortcircuits. State inspectors recommend better insulation of circuits. UCC engineers inspect Bhopal plant, issue Operational Safety Survey on conditions in plant, warn there is real danger of a runaway reaction; suggest measures to avert danger UCIL management report s to UCC on follow-up, saying they will undertake all suggested measures, but do not act on the recommendation to increase the range of the firewater spraying system from 15 meters to 35 meters so it can reach the top of the MIC vent pipe. The last UCIL communication on followup, dated 26 June 1984, says all changes have been made except one to the SEVIN feed tank, which will be completed when the needed control valve is delivered in about a month. summer Jagannathan Mukund, Indian citizen trained at Institute WV plant, replaces US national Warren Woomer as plant manager. UCIL has to admit failure of efforts to scale up alpha-napthol production; alpha-napthol unit shut down as too unprofitable to run. Worker transfers begin. Aug Sept fall 6 Oct Splash of liquid MIC at plant injures a chemical engineer UCIL applies for extension of its Foreign Collaboration Agreement with UCC through December 1987 so it can continue importing alpha-napthol. Indian government approves UCIL application for renewal of Foreign Collaboration Agreement with UCC, but only to 1 Jan 1985. Leaks of MIC, hydrochloric acid, and chloroform injure 3 workers seriously enough to require brief hospitalization; 15 others less affected are given first aid at plant. Some panic in neighboring shantytown. State inspectors note several violations of normal operating procedures and recommend measures including red tags on equipment that should not be used. Labor unions complain to Madhya Pradesh Ministry of Labor about conditions in plant. Also begin occasional public demonstrations. Madhya Pradesh state labor ministry inspectors inspect plant but they are mechanical engineers with limited competence to assess safety of chemical plants. Labor Ministry officials do enter complaints with courts, but these will not be taken up for some time owing to long list of pending suits. Madhya Pradesh minister of labor says the plant is safe and berates opposition for its worries during question time in a December session of the state legislature. 31 Dec Warren Woomer, the last remaining American employee, leaves Bhopal plant. 7 of 19 1983 Various cost-cutting measures undertaken. Staff morale declines through the year as layoffs and resignations take effect. Experienced workers leave and are replaced by less experienced workers from other units of Bhopal plant or other UCIL plants. Madhya Pradesh State Pollution Control Board requires companies to declare what they are emitting into the air. UCIL declared carbon dioxide only, not the other gasses (including phosgene and MIC) that occasionally leak. Board lacks sufficient inspectors to follow up, even after animals die from drinking water from a stream just outside the plant polluted by fluid runoff from the plant. Sept. fall Dec. Chief of National Pollution Control Board visits plant area while in Bhopal. Orders UCIL to fix flaws in effluent evaporation pond that permit leaks onto adjacent land. UCIL complies. Proposal to salvage investment in Bhopal plant by converting part of it to produce new carbofuran pesticide and supply it to India and other markets are rejected as economically unfeasible by UCC. Jumper pipe connected between pressure valve header and relief valve header on MIC tanks to simplify maintenance. Bhopal plant manager Jagannathan Mukund given UCC safety award for operating 12 months without serious incident. 1984 Bhopal plant operating at 1/5 capacity owing to weak demand. Losses near $4 million since 1980. Successive reductions in personnel mean only 1 supervisor and 6 workers are present on each shift in the MIC unit (company guidelines state that the MIC unit should have 3 supervisors and 12 workers on each shift). Training of supervisors and workers has become less rigorous. April Madhya Pradesh government legalizes the shanty towns that have grown up just outside UCIL plant since 1978 by granting dwellers certificates of ownership of the land they occupy. Bhopal population estimated to be close to 900,000 and the shanty towns are notably larger than they had been in 1981. UCC approves UCIL proposals to write off the alpha-napthol unit, sell rest of Bhopal plant while retaining MIC unit, reduce UCC ownership share of UCIL to 40% so UCIL can be more independent. Neither the UCC share reduction nor the plant sale had been carried out by December. May June or July Bhopal Town Planning Board lists 18 factories as â€Å"obnoxious† and therefore to be monitored particularly carefully. UCIL’s Bhopal plant was not included on the list. Sept UCIL engineers inspect plant, report to UCIL top management that 1) gas scrubber is functioning poorly, 2) there are poor communication between plant production and maintenance staff, 3) workers lack instruction on what do in event of runaway reaction, 4) safety meetings are held only half as often as specified in company rules. 8 of 19 UCC engineers survey MIC plant in Institute, West Virginia. They report concerns about some aspects of plant operation there and possibility of a runaway reaction in the MIC storage tanks (larger than the tanks installed in the Bhopal plant). Oct UCC considers idea of dismantling Bhopal plant and shipping equipment to Brazil or Indonesia. Asks UCIL to draw up feasibility study and cost estimates. UCIL reports back 29 Nov. Question of what to do is pressing because the plant will have no source of alpha-napthol when UCIL’s Foreign Collaboration Agreement with UCC expires on 1 Jan 1985. 7-22 Oct Remaining phosgene and methylamine stocks at Bhopal plant are used up in making a last batch of MIC. 42 tons are put into Tank E610; about 20 tons into Tank E611. UCIL plan is to withdraw it a ton at a time In November and December and react it with alpha-napthol to produce SEVIN. The storage tanks are isolated and the MIC production unit is shut down for maintenance after the batch is finished; MIC unit production workers are assigned to other tasks. 31 Oct Curfew imposed in Bhopal after inter-communal riots sparked by news Sikh guards had assassinated Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Plant activities curtailed for several weeks because curfew affects ability of second shift to leave work and of third to arrive for work on time are affected. MIC drawn down in small batches. Nov last week of Nov. According to later testimony of plant workers, the position of second-shift maintenance supervisor was eliminated. Dec condition of plant safety systems at start of second shift Safety System vent gas scrubber (uses caustic soda to neutralize toxic gas exhaust from MIC plant and storage tanks before release thru vent stack or flare) flare (burns toxic gasses to neutralize them) Condition on 2 Dec 1984 on standby since MIC not in active production but could be activated b y plant operators in event of need insufficient capacity to burn large volumes of escaping gas; shut down in November for replacement of a corroded pipe; MIC process vents rerouted to the vent gas scrubber while repairs proceed shut down June 1984 and coolant (Freon) drained for use elsewhere in plant refrigeration system (keep MIC at temperatures of 0-5 degrees C (32 to 42 degrees F) where it is less reactive) firewater spray pipes (to control escaping functional but insufficient height to reach gasses, cool over-heated equipment or douse top of vent stack fires) 9 of 19 afety valve between MIC storage tanks and MIC holding tank in SEVIN production area operational; designed to hold MIC in at normal pressures and release it if pressure too high. There are 2 competing versions of events on December 2nd between 9 and 11 pm. The first is preferred by most authors who have studied the events; the second is offered by only a few. *See note at end for more information about the controver sy. Divergent accounts of how water entered Tank E610 Version 1: water-washing of pipes 8-9 pm Second-shift production superintendent orders MIC plant supervisor to flush several pipes running from the phosgene system to the scrubber via the MIC storage tanks. MIC unit workers are in charge of the flushing, but maintenance department is responsible for inserting the slip bind (a solid disk) into pipe above the water washing inlet as plant manual requires. These take 30 minutes-2 hours to install. The MIC unit workers were apparently not aware that installation is a required safety procedure, and slip bind is not installed first. Temperature of MIC in tanks is between 15 and 20 degrees C . 9. 30 Water washing begins. One bleeder valve (overflow device) downstream from the flushing was blocked so water did not come out as it was supposed to. It accumulated in the pipes. A worker shut off the water flow but the plant supervisor ordered that the washing resume. By then water had risen past a leaking isolation valve in the lines being washed and got into the relief valve pipe 20 feet above ground. by 10. 30 pm Water has flowed from the relief valve pipe through the jumper pipe into the process pipe through valves normally kept open. Water gets Water washing proceeded as described but none of the water used for washing traveled far enough down the right pipe to enter Tank E610. Version 2: sabotage 10 of 19 through an open blow-down valve that is part of the nitrogen pressurization system. It is unclear whether the valve had been left open or had failed to fully seal when last closed. Water then flows into tank E610 via a normally-open isolation valve. 10. 30-10. 45 pm Second shift goes off work; third shift comes on. Washing continues after second shift worker briefs third shift worker on progress of the job. around 10. 30 pm A disgruntled worker removes a pressure gauge on a pipe leading to Tank E610 and connects a water hose to the coupler. Water enters Tank E610 Shared account of responses to detection of problems 11 pm Third shift control room operator notices pressure gauge connected to Tank E610 has risen from a reading of about about 2 psi at the start of the shift to 10 psi. This is within the normal 2-25 psi range, so arouses no concern. Control room lacks any reliable way of monitoring tank temperatutre. about 11. 30 pm Workers in area notice MIC smell, see MIC leak near the scrubber. Find MIC and dirty water coming out a branch of the relief valve pipe on the downstream side of the safety valve, away from the tank area. They set up a water spray to neutralize the leaking MIC and inform control room personnel of situation and their actions. They then take their regular tea break, continuing to discuss the situation and what they should do next. 3 December about 12. 15 am Control room operator notices that control room pressure indicator for Tank E610 reads 25-30 psi about 12. 30 am . Control room operator notices that needle on pressure indicator for Tank E610 is pinned to the maximum reading of 55 psi. Control room operator goes out to tank area to check gauges on tank. While in tank area he hears a safety valve pop, hears rumbling in tank, and feels heat emanating from it. Returns to control room to engage the gas vent scrubber. Caustic soda does not flow as it should. A cloud of gas escapes from the scrubber stack. by 12. 40 am Plant supervisor suspends operation of the MIC plant, turns on the in-plant and external toxic gas sirens. External sirens audible in nearby neighborhoods are turned off after about five minutes. Operators turn on the fire water sprayers but water cannot reach the gas cloud forming at the top of the scrubber stack. Efforts to cool Tank E610 with the refrigeration system fail because the Freon had been drained. Gas escapes for about 2 hours. 11 of 19 efore 1 am Plant supervisor realizes that tank E619, the designated spare, is not empty, so workers cannot relieve the pressure in E610 by transferring any MIC to E619. by 1 am gas smell is obvious outside the plant; nearby residents awake at the time or awakened by noise and sm elling the gas odor start fleeing in panic. 1. 30 am Bhopal police chief informed of leak and panic by an on-duty officer who ran to his house; no significant police mobilization follows. about 2. 30 am Bhopal plant external siren for warning the neighborhood is turned on again about 3 am Army engineer units with trucks are mobilized after a retired brigadier general requests help evacuating workers from his factory near the UCIL plant (but not under the strongest gas concentrations). Army unit then expands operations to assist general populace by transporting injured to hospitals and clinics. Some mobilization of city ambulances. Medical personnel hearing of situation head to hospitals and clinics. before 8 am Madhya Pradesh governor orders closure of plant plus arrest of plant manager and 4 other employees. afternoon Head of India Pollution Control Board informed of accident. Efforts to learn details from Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board fail because phone calls cannot get through. Phone conversation with UCIL office in New Delhi (also unable to get phone calls through to the plant) provides some information about possible causes. ate afternoon Indian Central Bureau of Investigation takes control of plant and UCIL records there. CBI agents begins interviewing plant supervisors and workers; bar entry by anyone else, including other UCIL employees. Dec Many government offices and businesses in Bhopal closed; dead buried or cremated in accordance with their f amilies’ religious traditions; initial treatment of injured proceeds 18-19 Dec Under government supervision the MIC still in storage at the UCIL is plant is neutralized by combining with alpha-napthol to make finished pesticides. Local population leaves town as a precaution. 1985 July 1985-98 1994 1998 Madhya Pradesh government rejects UCIL application for renewal of operating license. Plant closed Some work on cleanup of plant site by UCIL. UCC sells its share of UCIL to McLeod Russell (India) Limited. McLeod Russell renames UCIL Eveready Industries India, Ltd. State of Madhya Pradesh takes over plant site from Eveready Industries. 12 of 19 *Note on the two versions of how water reached storage tank 610. Timelines of the alternate possibilities are constructed from the works of several Indian authors who collectively used interviews with plant staff, court depositions by plant staff, interviews with local residents and officials, UCIL executives and UCC technicians, and UCIL or UCC documents obtained during the post-disaster litigation. Most of the detail comes from Paul Srivastava, Bhopal: Anatomy of a Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1987),and Sanjoy Hazarika, Bhopal: The Lessons of a Tragedy (New Delhi: Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 1987), who take different views but are careful to acknowledge areas of uncertainty. The initial exposition of the water-washing explanation was provided in an Indian government report, S. Varadarajan et al. â€Å"Report on Scientific Studies in the Factors Related to Bhopal Toxic Gas Leakage (New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dec 1985). The sabotage theory was developed by consulting engineers from Arthur D Little, Inc. commissioned by UCC to investigate the causes. It was publicly laid out in Ashok S. Kalelkar, â€Å"Investigation of Large-Magnitude Incidents: Bhopal as a Case Study,† in I. Chem. E. Symposium Series No. 110 The Institution of Chemical Engineers 1988, p 561. Version 1 in the timeline, favored by local and international trade union representatives, local activists, the Indian government, transnational environmental and consumer organizations, and most technical experts (see Chemical and Engineering News 4 July 1988) is based on known water-washing activities. Proponents of version 2, favored by UCC after its investigators were able to visit the plant in early 1985, point out that the water washing occurred a good distance away from the storage tanks and there is no evidence water ran through the connections from the washing area to the storage tanks. They also point to evidence that the pressure gauge on the pipe leading into Tank 610 was noticed to be missing when tank area was surveyed before 10 am on Dec 3rd and a replacement gauge was installed. The most thorough summary of this version is Themistocles D’Silva, The Black Box of Bhopal 1993 who does state clearly that he was a UCIL employee – though not at the Bhopal plan t – in the 1980s. ) Even if sabotage were involved, no commentator thinks the saboteur was trying to cause a catastrophic gas leak; knowledge of safety hazards among the workers was spotty enough that very few of them understood the full effect of introducing water into the MIC storage tanks. The controversy was sharpened in the course of the extremely acrimonious litigation between the Government of India and UCC. UCC first raised the sabotage allegation in 1985 and repeated it in 1988 but never named the suspected saboteur. A worker believing he is the suspect publicly challenged UCC to name the suspect and denied that he had any involvement in sabotage. UCC planned to wait until the trial before the Indian Supreme Court to do so; out-of-court settlement made that unnecessary and it never publicly revealed the full basis of its suspicions. In a FAQ section of its website on Bhopal (www. bhopal. com) Union Carbide’s answer to the question of if there was sabotage why hasn’t the company named anyone, it says that the name is known to Indian enforcement authorities. While a useful way to avoid libel suits, the continuing refusal to provide a name response is interpreted as weakening UCC’s claim by those who reject the sabotage theory. Notice that the contending versions of events between 9 and 11 pm on December 2nd only provide different explanations of how water got into MIC storage tank 610. Everyone who has studied the disaster agrees that the injuries to neighboring residents were caused by an unneutralized cloud of leaked gas that escaped through the vent, and that the reaction producing this cloud was triggered by water contamination. Though the concrete shielding of the storage tanks cracked above Tank 610 (indicating that its temperature 13 of 19 got above 400 degrees F), the tank itself was found to be uncracked when inspected after remaining contents were neutralized and removed in mid-December 1984. There is no substantial disagreement about the conditions of the safety systems that night or on the responses of the supervisors and workers after the small MIC leak was noticed around 11. 30. Nor is there any significant disagreement about the inadequacy of contingency plans for in-plant response and evacuation of neighboring settlements, the poor communication about hazards with city and state authorities, or the insufficiency of warnings to surrounding settlements when the gas cloud formed. Descriptions of the extent and timing of action by city officials, state officials, army units in Bhopal, and national government officials also vary very little; controversy about government response is focused on the adequacy of actions in the days, months, and years following the disaster. 14 of 19 Bhopal Gas Disaster Chronology: Ensuing Litigation 985 March UCC and Government of India investigatory teams conclude independently that runaway chemical reaction causing MIC gas cloud was caused by water getting into Tank 610 Indian Parliament adopts Bhopal Disaster Relief Act making Indian government the sole legal representative for all victims of the Bhopal disaster. US Federal Dist rict Court consolidates all lawsuits pending in US about Bhopal gas leak into one case, Union of India v. Union Carbide Corporation. rest of year Victims and victim advocates complain about lack of effective relief. rest of year UCC stock declines; total stock value of company in December put at approximately $3 billion. UCC sells off assets (mainly petrochemicals and consumer product divisions) for $3. 5 billion and borrows $2. 8 billion to fend off $5. million takeover bid by GAF (General Analine and Film, another specialty chemical maker) 1986 Government of India lawyers and UCC lawyers begin discussion of an out-of-court settlement. Union Carbide proposes a settlement amount of $350 million under arrangements that it estimates will generate a fund for Bhopal victims of between $500-600 million over 20 years. Government rejects this offer as insufficient. Indian and foreign activist groups supporting victims have already publicized their own estimates contending that damages are at least $3 billion if loss of animals, loss of income from inability to work, loss of business in the weeks after the gas release, and related damages are also taken into account. April U. S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration proposed a $1. 4 million fine against Union Carbide Corp, based on results of its September 1985 inspection of five of 18 plant units at Institute, West Virginia. OSHA alleges 221 violations of 55 health and safety laws, listing 72 of the 221 as â€Å"serious† (the category for violations creating conditions in which there is substantial probability of death or significant injury. US Federal District Court rules on a preliminary motion in Government of India v. Union Carbide Corporation; invoking forum non conveniens doctrine it determines that trials relating to injuries suffered in the Bhopal disaster should be held in India. March May 5 of 19 Sept. Dec. Government of India proceeds against UCC in District Court in Bhopal, seeking $3 billion in total compensation for 630,000 persons in Bhopal area. Bhopal District court orders UCC to hold $3 billion in unencumbered assets as collateral while lawsuit pending. This to prevent consc ious a run-down of assets, rumors of which were rife in USA and India at the time. UCC offers $50 million, then $80 million in compensation, amounts derived from typical Indian settlements. Amounts widely criticized, viewed as insulting by victim groups, rejected by Government of India. 1987 Jan rest of year 1988 Victim lawsuits continue in Indian courts. State of Madhya Pradesh also files criminal charges against Warren Anderson, then CEO of UCC, and several UCIL executives or plant supervisors for their roles in causing the disaster. 1989 Feb Under prodding by Indian Supreme Court, UCC and Government of India agree to a $470 million settlement of all Bhopal gas leak-related claims. Supreme Court endorses settlement, making it binding on both parties. It also grants immunity against criminal charges arising from the gas leak. The $470 million is paid to the Government of India as sole legal representative of the victims. 36 special courts established in Bhopal to deal with applications for compensation Value of UCC stock rebounds somewhat with news of settlement. UCC CEO Robert Kennedy (replaced Anderson in 1987) completes reorganization of UCC into a holding company with 3 main divisions: chemicals and plastics, industrial products, carbon products. 1990 Oct 2 groups of victims file class action suits in Texas alleging that India failed to represent them adequately because of government agencies’ ownership of UCIL stock, and therefore did not secure them sufficient compensation. Consistent with 16 of 19 US Court of Appeals upholds US District Court ruling that Bhopal disaster litigation should proceed in India rather than the USA. UCC sells off last petrochemicals and consumer products divisions norms of mutual respect for court decisions, US courts refuse to review the Indian Supreme Court’s ruling. Nov. Government of Madhya Pradesh submits final list of names of victims to be compensated for injuries suffered in gas leak to Indian Supreme Court. Total deaths attributable to gas exposure put at 3,828. 1991 Oct Indian Supreme Court confirms compensation settlement, issues ruling modifying certain parts of 1989 judgment. These include UCC establishment of a trust fund to support a new hospital in Bhopal to treat victims’ ongoing health problems and revoking immunities from criminal charges. District Sessions Court in Bhopal reinstates charges of â€Å"culpable manslaughter not amounting to murder† and lesser charges relating to voluntary infliction of harm against Warren Anderson and 8 UCIL executives or supervisors. 1992 Apr 1993 Mar. NY Times reports that India has paid 700 Bhopal claims; government attributes delay to complexities of verifying the claims given chaotic record keeping at the time. Victim advocates blame on government incompetence. US Supreme Court declines to review federal court decisions in 1990 cases dismissing suits against India. UCC establishes the trust fund. Oct. 1994 Apr Nov Dec Indian Supreme Court approves UCC plans to sell its 50. 9% share of UCIL; proceeds to be given to Trust Fund for hospital in Bhopal. UCC completes sale of UCIL to McLeod Russell (India) Ltd. of Calcutta for approximately $93 million UCC provides initial payment of proceeds into Trust Fund. Ten-Year Impact of Bhopal Disaster on UCC year ending 31 Dec. 1984 total assets $10,518 million capital $7962 million year ending 31 Dec. 1994 $5028 million $2479 million 17 of 19 net sales net income R&D spending employees [from UCC annual reports] $9608 million $323 million $265 million 98,666 $4653 million $379 million $136 million 12,004 1999 Jan 2000 Mar Class action suit, Bano v. Union Carbide Corporation, filed in US Federal Courts by Haseena Bi and other organizations representing residents of Bhopal seeking compensation for gas-leak related injuries and for further harm from exposure to contaminants afterward under US Alien Tort Claims Act. US District Court dismisses Bano case UCC completed payments to Trust Fund, which now totals $100 million. Construction of hospital is complete and physicians and other staff being recruited. Aug 2001 Trust Fund-financed Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research Centre begins treating patients. 2004 July Indian Supreme Court orders government to release all additional settlement funds to the victims. Indian newspapers reports after all claims were paid there was still about $327 million in the fund because of interest earned while the money was in escrow pending distribution. Indian nationals file Janki Bai Sahu v. Union Carbide Corporation in US Federal District Court. Suit seeks compensation for personal injuries claimed to be result of exposure to contaminated water and remediation work at former UCIL plant after the gas leak. Nov 2005 Apr Indian Supreme Court grants Indian Government Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims request for an extension of deadline on distribution of remaining funds and extends it to April 30, 2006. Indian newspapers report that approximately $390 million remains in the fund. US Federal District Court dismisses two of the three compensation claims raised in the Janki Bai Sahu case. Dec 18 of 19 2006 Sept Indian newspapers report that the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims has completed paying out all claims to listed victims of initial gas leak. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York upholds the dismissal of claims in Bano vs. Union Carbide Corporation. Federal District Court dismisses remaining claim in Janki Bai Sahu case. 2007 Mar A group of Indian citizens files a new class action suit, Jagarnath Sahu et al. v. Union Carbide Corporation and Warren Anderson, seeking compensation for damage to six individual properties allegedly polluted by contaminants from the Bhopal plant, as well as the remediation of property in 16 colonies [squatter settlements] adjoining the plant. Federal Courts issue a stay [suspension] of proceedings pending resolution of appeal in Janki Bai Sahu case as the issues in litigation are so similar. -end- Nov 19 of 19

Asthma worse in schoolchildren Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asthma worse in schoolchildren - Research Paper Example A survey of schoolchildren in Taiwan had revealed that owing to fungal spores in classrooms, the rate of the disease has increased from 6 percent to 11 percent. Hence it is understood that schoolchildren are faced with significant environmental challenges that impact their health and cause asthma to deteriorate (Asthma worse in schoolchildren with more fungal spores in the classroom, 2014). In general, buildings that are not maintained properly and lack proper systems of ventilation tend to allow mold to thrive in. as a result the quality of indoor air within the buildings get affected severely. Spores of mold are known to drift down through classrooms, if school buildings are considered from tiles of the ceilings. Consequently, health hazards for schoolchildren arise, of which the impacts of asthma are significantly concerning as the condition gets worsened owing to such fungal spores (Dykiel, Hobbs and Roberson, 2009, p.140). There are certain schools that have evaluation systems for their various facilities. From such evaluations, it has been obtained that shortcomings in the facilities of a school buildings result in problems related to mold and their spores. This can be associated with larger problems associated with the buildings such as poor oversight in relation to the construction of the buildings, lack of planning for handling situations of crisis, and so on (Dykiel, Hobbs and Roberson, 2009, p.140). The presence of fungi is possible anywhere if oxygen and moisture are available. In buildings, the growth of the fungi increases when excessive accumulation of moisture occurs in the buildings, and the problem persists or increases if the issue remains unattended. Different studies have similar views that reflect on the fact that airborne fungal spores act as allergens causing severe impacts of asthma. However some studies are not sure of the

Introduction of e-banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Introduction of e-banking - Essay Example This scale is regularly used for quantifying the opinions of the respondents (Han and Noh, 1999-2000 and Usoro, 1999). Electronic Banking (e-banking) is an extremely fast growing segment in the banking sector throughout the world. It is an example where information technology is used as an enabler and a facilitator of business activities both inside and amongst the various types of organizations (Applegate et al., 1996). It is estimated by Forrester Research that e-banking transactions will grow in value to $590 billion by 2007. It is with the concurrent reform of banking regulations and technological advances occurring across the world, multiple consumers and businesses are currently able to carry out on-line activities without visiting a store, and companies can carry out transactions and serve clients without the necessity to set up infrastructure in a commercial district. Such a radical change is a direct consequence of the progress of information technology, particularly through mediums like Electronic Data Interchange and the Internet and the internal network of the organization. ... Introduction Electronic Banking (e-banking) is an extremely fast growing segment in the banking sector throughout the world. It is an example where information technology is used as an enabler and a facilitator of business activities both inside and amongst the various types of organizations (Applegate et al., 1996). It is estimated by Forrester Research that e-banking transactions will grow in value to $590 billion by 2007. It is with the concurrent reform of banking regulations and technological advances occurring across the world, multiple consumers and businesses are currently able to carry out on-line activities without visiting a store, and companies can carry out transactions and serve clients without the necessity to set up infrastructure in a commercial district. Such a radical change is a direct consequence of the progress of information technology, particularly through mediums like Electronic Data Interchange and the Internet and the internal network of the organization. Though in the majority of the business areas the execution of ecommerce is a rent development, it has the possibility to radically change economic activities and the social milieu. (Kalakota and Winston,1996). This has significant strategic inferences for organizations, especially in the banking sector. This is so since, as the main business settlement agents, banks are inescapably faced with basic managerial and technological tests created by the advent of e-banking. Areas Impacted By E Banking Solutions Banks, in particular, should reflect on how they can optimally maintain clients who are transacting business by electronic means, and also how the banks can themselves discover new opportunities to endorse their services and product

Contemporary issues in accounting and finance Case Study

Contemporary issues in accounting and finance - Case Study Example In brief, economists (Norton & Porter, pp. 56-63, 2009) have blamed organizations for considering short-term profits of the company to pay huge rewards and compensation to CEOs and directors that is a significant form of excessive amount of risk-taking by the organizations, causing long-term financial issues. Despite of different claims and blames, analysis of the studies (Saudagaran, pp. 21-25, 2009) has indicated that everything goes down to one end that is accounting and its principles. A huge number of studies (Sorkin, 2008) have indicated that there has been deficiency of ethical and professional accountants in the profession that were involved in manipulating accounting rules and metrics on short-term basis that resulted in a financial issue for the organizations, as well as the banki... Economists believe that this specific rule inclined accountants to exaggerate the financial matters in front of the national banks that contributed adversely in the promotion of economic recession. In addition, a number of experts (Manning & Nothwehr, pp. 1, 2008) from the banking sector consider the rule as a very dangerous principle that resulted in the representation of losses of billions of dollars, whereas, the organizations never lost it. In an article of the New York Times, author wrote, "FAS 157 represents the so-called fair value rule put into effect by the Federal Accounting Standards Board, the bookkeeping rule makers. It requires that certain assets held by financial companies, including tricky investments linked to mortgages and other kinds of debt, be marked to market. In other words, you have to value the assets at the price you could get for them if you sold them right now on the open market" (Sorkin, 2008). Besides FAS 157, a few experts have indicated similar objective of mark-to-market rule, FAS 115 that regulates the organizations to perform the following tasks. Although it is a good principle, but it allows companies to manipulate things in a tricky manner, and this possibility of manipulation indicates the intensifying capability of this accounting principle to encourage frauds and subsequently, recessionary period around the world. Experts (Sorkin, 2008) have indicated that big names like CitiGroup, Lehman Brothers, etc used this accounting principle to show their exposure at fifty percent, whereas, it was only near to fifteen percent. In this regard, besides unethical practices involving personal

Environmental Analysis of Disney Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Environmental Analysis of Disney - Case Study Example The main challenges faced by Disney will be changing technology and constant need for technological innovations, strict environmental laws and regulation demanding safe and clean production. Demographical factors will change traditional target audiences and require new planning and market segmentation. Industry environment will be affected by (1) fierce competition, (2) new industry structure and (3) globalization of the entertainment industry. The view of competition as market power no longer suffices in the long run. This is due to the fact the survivors of decades of fierce global competition all seem to be converging on similar and formidable standards for product cost, quality, and timeliness. In this case, Disney managers need to look at the internal competencies of their corporations to secure long-term survival. Operating environment will be affected by (1) 'know-how' business solutions and (2) rapid growth of the Internet and e-commerce. The main changes will affect operatin g environment and will help the company to create competitive advantage, improve sales and performance management. For the innovation of new ideas to be successful a high degree of integration is needed between all concerned (e.g. engineering, production management and marketing). Change process is closely connected with the integrity perception which is built into their way of doing things, a 'passion for integrity' which applies to employees, customers, suppliers and other audiences such as the community (Vogel 2007; Walt Disney 2007). In order to compete during the next 10 years, Disney should take into account global business environment and technological innovations which have a crucial impact on this sector. The most important factors for long-term plans include changing life style of consumers and demand patterns (Walt Disney 2007). The main long-term objectives will be the following: (a) Disney should create and support multicultural environment for its entertainment programs in order to meet changing consumer demands and resist competition. Such phenomenon as cultural globalization receives the development from technological revolution and economic globalization which together create a stream of the cultural blessings. Modern consumers are driven by world entertainment trends rather then national ideals (McDonald and Christopher 2003). (b) Disney should respond to demographical changes and segment its consumers according to their life style and a country of origin. Changing patterns of demand and more sophisticated tastes are expected over time and Disney should be in the marketplace ready to supply them. One of the means by which Disney can create market penetration is through the creation of its own distribution facilities around the world. (c) The next objective is global penetration and expansion. The Internet and increasing number of users in Asian and African countries will represent unlimited opportunities for this sector. For its product line, Disney should buy up retail outlets and making strenuous efforts to build a retailing network, which, apart from the immediate financial advantages, facilitates the marketing of their products. Disney should internationalize through cross-border mergers and takeovers. Disney will gain from reduced

Current Events and US Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Current Events and US Diplomacy - Essay Example   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the fact remained that the US military forces had already lost over 25000 American soldiers along with hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese. In spite of such efforts, the US could not come out as victorious. Antiwar forces within the US were most vocal against the US government for the deployment of the US forces in Vietnam War. In such circumstances, Nixon assured US allies to honor treaty commitments (History.com, 2012).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the behest of Nixon Doctrine, it became amply clear that now South Vietnamese troops would have to fight on their own as the process of withdrawing American troops began after formal announcement. In keeping with this pronouncement, the US and North Vietnam signed a peace treaty in 1973 and it appeared that permanent peace will prevail in the area. However, two years later, in 1975, North Vietnamese forces demolished the South Vietnamese army bringing the who le country under communist rule (History.com, 2012).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is important to note that though the Communist Party ruled the Vietnam since 1975 yet the country moved from planned economy to a market economy in the '80s. In recent years, the US relations with Vietnam have improved significantly. However, several incidents are responsible for that. In 1991, Soviet Union collapsed and disintegrated into several independent states. Also, East Germany merged into West Germany to accelerate economic growth based on the free market trade systems. It is important to note that Vietnam and the US tend to develop a free trade agreement between them. and they have already entered into an investment and trade agreement besides signing air transport, textile and maritime agreements. The US imports a variety of goods from Vietnam such as footwear, apparel, furniture, seafood, agricultural products; similarly, it exports machinery products, vehicles, yarn and fabri c. Thus, relations

Human Trafficking Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Human Trafficking - Research Paper Example According to the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), human trafficking is defined according to the nature and purpose of trafficking human beings. Hence, TVPA defines sex trafficking as an act where â€Å"a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age† (Department of States.., 2007, p.7). The TVPA defines other kinds of trafficking as â€Å"the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use offorce, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery†. In simple words, the victims of trafficking are forced to work by keeping them captive (Hart, 2009, p. 4). Forced labor is called trafficking even when a person is forced to work against his will in his own country. According to International Labor Organization (ILO), at a given time, around 12.3 million to 27 million people are the victim of "forced labor, bonded labor, forced child labor, and sexual servitude" in different parts of the world. This shows that the racket of human trafficking is not only strong but is also widespread. The statistics also suggest that traffickers are not restricted to certain areas or countries. In fact, traffickers increase the vulnerability of the victims by trafficking them to the countries at the vast distance, where the victims feel alien due to a large barrier in language and culture.... In simple words, the victims of trafficking are forced to work by keeping them captive (Hart, 2009, p. 4). Forced labor is called trafficking even when a person is forced to work against his will in his own country. According to International Labor Organization (ILO), at a given time, around 12.3 million to 27 million people are victim of â€Å"forced labor, bonded labor, forced child labor, and sexual servitude† in different parts of the world (Department of States.., 2007, p.8). This shows that the racket of human trafficking is not only strong, but is also wide spread. The statistics also suggest that traffickers are not restricted to certain areas or countries. In fact, traffickers increase the vulnerability of the victims by trafficking them to the countries at vast distance, where the victims feel alien due to a large barrier in language and culture (Department of States.., 2007, p.7). This further removes the chances of victims asking for help or support from people aro und them. In this way, traffickers use different methods to weaken the victims and make them feel vulnerable, bonded and slave at the hands of the traffickers and customers. Types Of Human Trafficking There are different types of human trafficking like bonded labor, involuntary servitude, domestic servitude, prostitution etc (Hart, 2009, p. 6). People who are victim of human trafficking are forced to work in various fields and farms to plant and harvest the crop (Hart, 2009, p. 6). Some are made to work in restaurants to do cleanup jobs (Hart, 2009, p. 6). Women and children are forced to work hard as domestic servant, either by torturing them physically and emotionally, or by promising them good pay and schooling (Hart, 2009, p. 6). They are made to

Philosophy - Practical Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Philosophy - Practical Ethics - Essay Example In this paper I will discuss the moral difference between abortion and infanticide with special reference to the views of Michael Tooley and Mary Anne Warren. Metaphysics is an area of philosophy that deals with questions having to do with the ultimate grounding and nature of things in the world. It is concerned with such diverse topics as the mind/body problem, identity, God, the existence and nature of universals, the existence and nature of the soul, and so on. Thus, the morality of abortion, if it is to be construed as contingent upon the nature of the fetus, is an issue whose resolution depends on which metaphysical view of the human person is correct. Given this, let us take a look at Michael's argument. Although he makes many provocative and interesting claims that deserve a reply, I will focus on a small portion of his essay that I believe is the core of his case. According to Michael, "the first principle of religious liberty is that laws will not be based upon abstract metaphysical speculation, but will be fashioned through the democratic processes in which every perspective is subject to critical analysis (Michael, 2000). Any proposal must be open either to revision or rejection." He then goes on to cite, as an example of what is not speculative metaphysics, the viability standard proposed by the Court in Roe. I will first critique Michael's use and defense of the viability standard and then move on to a general critique of Michael's view of "abstract metaphysical speculation." ... the viability standard in particular, fairly, sensibly, and effectively functions to safeguard the constitutional liberties of pregnant women while recognizing and accommodating the State's interest in potential human life. The viability line reflects the biological facts and truths of fetal development; it marks the threshold moment prior to which a fetus cannot survive separate from the woman and cannot reasonably and objectively be regarded as a subject of rights or interests distinct from, or paramount to, those of the pregnant woman (Michael, 2000). At the same time, the viability standard takes account of the undeniable fact that as the fetus evolves into its postnatal form, and as it loses its dependence on the uterine environment, the State's interest in the fetus' potential human life, and in fostering a regard for human life in general, becomes compelling. Michael's argument for the viability standard is nearly identical to the one presented by Blackmun: Part of the genius in Roe v. Wade (now affirmed in Casey) was putting forward the standard of viability: that stage of development at which the fetus has sufficient neurological and physical maturation to survive outside the womb. Prior to that, the fetus simply is not sufficiently developed as an independent being deserving and requiring the full protection of the law, i.e., a person (Michael, 2000). The notion of viability correlates biological maturation with personal identity in a way that can be recognized and accepted by reasonable people. Michael's use of the viability standard is seriously flawed. First, he praises the Court's legal use of the standard and then employs the standard as a decisive moment at which he believes it is reasonable to say that the fetus becomes a person, even though that is

Consider the View That Free

Consider the View That Free Will is an Illusion Essay You decide on the chocolate cake confident that you could have chosen the sandwich instead. You were free to do both, but as a matter of fact, you chose to eat the unhealthy option. But were you actually free to choose the unchosen alternative? Many philosophers think that free will is actually an illusion – that the choice you actually made was inevitable. Schopenhauer, for example, argued that for a man to say that he could have chosen an alternative is analogous to water in a still pond saying it could be flowing. Yes, he said, the water could be flowing if that same water were in a river, but given that it is actually in a pond its stillness is inevitable. I will argue that the arguments that purport to show that free will is an illusion are weak, and that we have such a thing as free will. First let us look at the arguments for determinism (here I will understand the determinism being discussed to be hard determinism – the view that our free will is illusory – rather than the compatibilist idea that free will can exist alongside causal determinism). What makes you take the chocolate cake instead of the sandwich? We think that the chocolate taking is the result of our deliberation and that the motive for eating the chocolate cake overcame our desire to be healthy. But what determined or caused us to be the kind of being that preferred the one to the other? It was our overall character. But what caused this? We say it is our upbringing and our genes. Now did we decide upon our upbringing that started the casual chain of events that culminated in the taking of the chocolate? No, so there was no other action that was in fact possible. Think of a snooker ball falling into the pocket. What caused this to happen? It was the combination of its shape, the direction of the cue, and the nature of the table. These factors combined with the laws of physics made the event inevitable. Of course, the snooker ball was not logically required to go into the pocket. There could have been a gust a wind at the crucial moment, but then this other event would have been causally necessary. Other things can only happen if other things which cause these other things to happen occur. So whatever happens is determined. If this is true of snooker balls, why should it be not true of us as well? If we are physical beings, and our brains composed of physical stuff, why should I be not constrained by the same physical forces as everything else? The hard determinist says that there is no reason to believe that we are not subject, like the billiard ball, to the laws of nature. We feel like we could have chosen the sandwich, but given the physical facts about the situation the taking of the chocolate was inevitable. Of course, we could have taken the sandwich if the physical facts were different, but they weren’t! So free will – the sense that we could have done otherwise in the same situation – is an illusion say the hard determinists. We are not free. This is a radical thesis, and if accepted would result in a radical readjustment of our concept of ourselves. And it from this that my first argument comes. According to phenomenalism we should proceed according to this methodology: accept the appearances – accept what you have the most warrant for believing. Descartes, for example, says we can be more philosophically assured of the existence of our own minds than the existence of the physical world. Hence his famous proposition: Cogito ergo sum. Why should the more doubtful propositions of science about the nature of the doubtable physical world take precedence over the immediate data of consciousness? Why should the philosophically disputable over-ride the philosophically indubitable? Physical determinists are committed to this doubtful methodology: let the world, which we cannot prove to exist, take precedence over the mental world whose existence we simply cannot doubt. The phenomenalist like Sartre says the mental appearances are indisputable. We certainly have the phenomenology of the appearance that we could have chosen otherwise. And it is from these certainties that we should proceed. So our freedom is here an inevitable part of our conception of ourselves and no argument from the outside world of physics can over-ride these certainties. Here’s another argument against the acceptance of the idea that free will is an illusion. Kant says that ought implies can. In other words, we cannot be obliged to do something if it is not within our ability to do it. Someone may say that I ought to eliminate third world poverty – that if I do not do so I am guilty of a neglect of duty. But this is unreasonable. It is not within my power to eliminate third world poverty, so it cannot be said that I ought to do so. Of course, if someone were to say that I ought to help to eliminate third world poverty, this is a reasonable ‘ought’ because I can do it. Ought then implies can. The argument proceeds from this presupposition and says that if Eric murders Sam we say that he ought not to have done so. He ought to have done differently – he ought to have refrained from murder. But if determinism is true, then, Eric had no alternative open to him. He was caused by his nature, the laws of physics, and his environment to kill Sam. We cannot therefore say that he ought not to have done it. We cannot expect people to do things that are not within their power to do. Our moral beliefs then presuppose that determinism is false. If we are not free then a morality of oughts and duty is incoherent. Again, we could proceed phenomenologically on this – we are more sure and have more warrant for our oughts than we have for our beliefs in determinism, so moral oughts should over-ride any belief we might be entertaining for determinism. Another argument against determinism says this: if I am caused to inevitably accept the conclusions of an argument then I cannot have been rational to accept the conclusions of the argument. If I am determinist I have to say that my belief in determinism was caused by physical processes. The determinist has to accept that it is true for his opponent. Both are caused by ignorant physical forces to accept their beliefs. But this is self-refuting. The determinist is in effect saying that there is no rationality, so we cannot be rational in accepting or rejecting beliefs. So the consistent determinist cannot say that he is offering reasons for accepting determinism; he must say he is putting in new causal inputs that cause a new belief state to emerge. This seems little better than irrational brain-washing! To conclude: belief in determinism is not warranted. It goes against our fundamental conceptions of ourselves and threatens to make morality meaningless. Moreover, determinism is self-refuting. It says of itself ‘There is no rational reason for accepting me. ’ I cannot rationally accept that which has no rational reason for its justification.

breakdown class divisions in society

breakdown class divisions in society Give a brief description of the effects of changes to educational legislation since 1944. Explain how the changes reflected government education policies and identify current educational priorities. The purpose of this assignment is to summarise education legislation from 1944 to present day and relate this to changes in government policy. There were many changes in education from 1944 to the modern day National Curriculum that we use today. In 1944 The Education Act was introduced that made education available to everyone up to the age of fifteen. The Education Act is more commonly referred to as The Butler Act as it was founded by Richard Austen Butler (Rab Butler), a conservative politician. Butlers 1944 Education Act was an attempt to create the structure for the post-war British education system. The Butler act also introduced the tri-partite system of education. The tri-partite system tested children at the age of eleven (11 plus examination), and depending on their level of aptitude they would then attend a technical college, a secondary modern or a grammar school. The more academic students attended grammar schools, technically minded students attended technical colleges and the rest attended secondary moderns. The act also created a network of support services for schools to which included health care treatment, school transport and school meals for 5 15 year olds which were overseen by the newly created post of Minister of Education. The Labour Government when they came into power in 1965 decided to introduce Comprehensive Schooling education (Circular 10/65). Labour preferred this system of schooling over the Conservative Selective Method. They had three main aims: To save money and improve facilities. To breakdown class divisions in society with all sorts of pupils mixing in the same school. To raise the abilities of the majority of students who had been failing in secondary modern schools. At the next election in 1970, the new Conservative education minister Margaret Thatcher withdrew the Circular 10/65. The priority of the Conservative government was to smash the L.E.A. control over the local schools. The replacement Circular 10/70 allowed each authority to decide its own policy for secondary education. As a result of these changes education standards in secondary schools varied and the methods employed to teacher were wide -ranging. Primary schools remained largely unchanged and stable with the exception of the debate over the 11 plus examination. The Education Reform (ERA) in 1988 is one of the most influential changes to legislation that is still in place today, and this was the most important act since the Butler act in 1944. It was established by the Conservative Government and saw a number of key changes to the rules and regulations. The 1988 education act also introduced the National Curriculum. The National Curriculum was introduced to ensure that schools taught a certain range of subjects. The first National Curriculum consisted of ten subjects. These were divided into two categories. The three core subjects were English, Maths and Science, and together with seven other foundation subjects created the basis of the National Curriculum. Compulsory National tests (SATS) were introduced at 7, 11 and 14 on core subjects. The results are published annually in league tables (along with GCSE/A levels and truancy statistics). The 1988 act also allowed the building of City Technology Colleges. They were independent and not run by the LEAs. The governments new strategy introduced the new Local Management of Schools (LMS) policy which reduced the control over schools by letting them opt-out of L.E.A. control. The 1992, OFSTED (The Office for Standards in Education) was formed as part of the major overhaul and centralisation of the school system begun by the Education Reform Act 1988, which introduced the National Curriculum, extensive testing in schools and the publication of league tables. OFSTED inspections were school inspections every 6 years. In 1997 The New Labour Government came into power, it was predicted that New Labour would reverse most of the changes implemented by the previous government but that never occurred. Instead they continued with the Conservatives initiatives and further developed them with the The Education Act 2002. This act introduced the foundation stage for primary nursery and reception year groups. The latest act to be implemented is the The Education and Inspection Bill 2006 which was passed in March 2006 by the Labour Government. The main areas of change in education are as follows: Foundation (Trust) Schools. School admissions policies to be changed to allow parents to select schools of their choice. Changes to the National Curriculum to include new diplomas to replace current A-Levels to be implemented by 2013. Changes to school travel to allow greater access to a variety of schools rather than local ones. School food and drink provided for children in education and childcare settings. The United Kingdom general election of 2010 was held on Thursday 6th May 2010. A coalition government was set up by the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats (The last coalition government was during World War 2). The immediate changes that took place were to rename and reshape The Department for Education DFE (Previously called Department for Children, Schools and Families DCFS). The government reverted the departments responsibilities back to education and childrens services only. The following day Rat Hon Michael Gove was confirmed as the new Secretary of State for Education. At present some policy changes decided by the previous government have been put on hold, reversed or abolished until the new government decides on its priorities. The future changes to the new primary national curriculum which were put forward by Sir Jim Rose to be implemented from September 2011 have been shelved, the government stating that it does not intend to proceed with the new primary curriculum. Instead they are committed to giving schools more freedom from unnecessary prescription and bureaucracy. They have always made clear their intention to make changes to the National Curriculum that will ensure a relentless focus on the basics and give teachers more flexibility than the proposed new primary curriculum offered. Another casualty includes Building Schools for the Future (BSF) project which is now canceled. Rt Hon Michael Gove said in the light of the public finances, it would have been irresponsible to carry on regardless with an inflexible and needlessly complex programme. The coalition has set out some of its new priorities since coming to power which include the expansion of academies throughout the education system in England. Academies are schools that are directly funded by central government and are independent of local government control. Rt Hon Michael Gove unveiled the governments new proposed Free Schools. Free Schools are all-ability state-funded schools set up in response to parental demand. These new schools will be academies, which are publicly funded independent schools, free from local authority control. They will enjoy the same freedoms as traditional academies, which include setting their own pay and conditions for staff, freedom from following the National Curriculum and the ability to change the lengths of their terms and school days. All Free Schools will be accountable like other state schools via inspections and tests. Under the new plans it will become much easier for charities, universities, businesses, educational groups, teachers and groups of parents to get involved and start new schools. Ministers are working right across Government to remove the red tape which can prevent new schools from setting up from planning laws, to the Departments own school premises rules. In my opinion, since the introduction of the 1944 Education Act, there have been some negative and positive points. For example the 1944 Butler act, after reflecting on it, you could clearly observe that it was typically biased towards to the middle / upper class families. Lower class families more often than not would end in secondary moderns achieving little or nothing. Having said this, the positive points outweighed the negative greatly as it was the start towards the National Curriculum that we have today. I believe that the 1988 Education reform act was the keystone to greatly improving the standards of education that children receive in todays society. This is because before the act, the standard of education students received was highly based on class status. Teachers also taught a range of subjects that they wished to teach as there were no set subjects so what you could be taught varied across the country. This led to many students leaving school with limited knowledge. Now, however, with the introduction of the National Curriculum, National Testing and OFSTED inspections and many other reforms after it, most students now leave school with a ample knowledge and understanding, as well as many transferable skills, such as the ability to analyse and discuss, which they can then take onto university or work and develop in the future. For the time being we will have to wait while the new government decides on its educational priorities until then we can speculate and wait. By Keith Lyons

How Far Does Behavioral Sink Go? :: Animals Environmental Wildlife Essays

How Far Does Behavioral Sink Go? If you ask any American what behavioral sink is, they more than likely won’t be able to define the term. It seems that everyone has become subject to this mysterious term, in once sense or another. Behavioral Sink, as described by the author, Tom Wolfe in the excerpt â€Å"O Rotten Gotham† from â€Å"A Forest of Voices†, is the study of how animals relate to their environment. In one of Wolfe’s studies he speaks of this behavioral sink in New York City. He talks about how overcrowding causes this. As observed by Wolfe, New Yorkers tended to be more aggressive and cold towards one another. When driving they were found to be screaming at each other because of traffic, speeding through a crowd getting aggravated and not really knowing why. They all seemed to be greatly stressed with a tendency to foster ulcers. He also studied the effects of overcrowding in Sika deer and rats. They all showed changes in behavior, even when there was plenty of food, water, and shelter due to this lack of personal space. When an autopsy was performed on the animals, it showed that their thyroids seem to enlarge, while their bodies looked genuinely healthy. The deer seemed to die of an adrenaline shock from their thyroids, due to the stress of no personal space. Wolfe seemed to think that if you did an autopsy on the deceased people in New York City, they would show the same general signs of thyroid enlargement. The interesting connection that humans have to rats is the grouping they exhibit. The leader-rats seem to take their own groups and then the average to below average rats gather together. Human aristocrats and wealthier people, like the leader rats, tend to live in suburbs and live in quieter, nicer places. The other people, like the average to below average rats, seemed to live in smaller apartments and much more crowded, less healthy areas like the slums. The average rats showed signs of violence, aggravation, homo and bi-sexuality, and all showed increasing signs of cancer and other diseases. The interesting connection here is that by my own observations, the same things seem to be happening in the world today. How Far Does Behavioral Sink Go? :: Animals Environmental Wildlife Essays How Far Does Behavioral Sink Go? If you ask any American what behavioral sink is, they more than likely won’t be able to define the term. It seems that everyone has become subject to this mysterious term, in once sense or another. Behavioral Sink, as described by the author, Tom Wolfe in the excerpt â€Å"O Rotten Gotham† from â€Å"A Forest of Voices†, is the study of how animals relate to their environment. In one of Wolfe’s studies he speaks of this behavioral sink in New York City. He talks about how overcrowding causes this. As observed by Wolfe, New Yorkers tended to be more aggressive and cold towards one another. When driving they were found to be screaming at each other because of traffic, speeding through a crowd getting aggravated and not really knowing why. They all seemed to be greatly stressed with a tendency to foster ulcers. He also studied the effects of overcrowding in Sika deer and rats. They all showed changes in behavior, even when there was plenty of food, water, and shelter due to this lack of personal space. When an autopsy was performed on the animals, it showed that their thyroids seem to enlarge, while their bodies looked genuinely healthy. The deer seemed to die of an adrenaline shock from their thyroids, due to the stress of no personal space. Wolfe seemed to think that if you did an autopsy on the deceased people in New York City, they would show the same general signs of thyroid enlargement. The interesting connection that humans have to rats is the grouping they exhibit. The leader-rats seem to take their own groups and then the average to below average rats gather together. Human aristocrats and wealthier people, like the leader rats, tend to live in suburbs and live in quieter, nicer places. The other people, like the average to below average rats, seemed to live in smaller apartments and much more crowded, less healthy areas like the slums. The average rats showed signs of violence, aggravation, homo and bi-sexuality, and all showed increasing signs of cancer and other diseases. The interesting connection here is that by my own observations, the same things seem to be happening in the world today.

Characterization, Theme, and Imagery of Ray Bradburys The Pedestrian :: Ray Bradbury, The Pedestrian

Two Works Cited Mankind has made great leaps toward progress with inventions like the television. However, as children give up reading and playing outdoors to plug into the television set, one might wonder whether it is progress or regression. In "The Pedestrian," Ray Bradbury has chosen to make a statement on the effects of these improvements. Through characterization and imagery, he shows that if mankind advances to the point where society loses its humanity, then mankind may as well cease to exist. Bradbury has elected to reflect the humanity of mankind in the character of Mr. Mead. First of all, Mr. Mead is associated with warm, bright light, which is symbolic of soul. If, during his night walks, people are alerted to his presence, "lights ... click on" (104). In essence, the embodiment of humanity is about. Mr. Mead's house beams "loud yellow illumination" (105). Since literature not only records the history of mankind but also evokes deep feeling among men, it brings this occupation close to the heart of humanity. Third, Mr. Mead is close to nature. Something as simple as taking a walk is "what Mr. Leonard Mead most dearly loved to do" (104). Man is most human when surrounded by the elements. Also, Mr. Mead's shadow is described as the "shadow of a hawk," relating him to a wild and free-spirited bird (104). Last, Mr. Mead is brought into a parallel with the most tender and human holiday observed in the western world when the rush of cold air makes his lungs "blaze like a Chr istmas tree" (104). The combination of these elements makes Mr. Mead a true representative of humanity. As a contrast to the humanity portrayed by Mr. Mead, Bradbury has mirrored the characteristics of progress in the police car. The car, as well as Mr. Mead, is associated with light. The light of the car, however, displays the absence of humanity. Rather than the "warm" light of Mr. Mead, the car possesses a "fierce" and "fiery" light that holds humanity "fixed" like a "museum specimen"--something from the past that should be looked at behind an impersonal plate of glass (105-06). When not holding humanity captive, the car's lights revert to "flashing ... dim lights," showing the absence of any real soul (106). The car is representative of several modern inventions, thereby embodying mankind's advancement. It is itself a robot, and it speaks in a "phonograph voice" through a "radio throat" (105-06). Characterization, Theme, and Imagery of Ray Bradbury's The Pedestrian :: Ray Bradbury, The Pedestrian Two Works Cited Mankind has made great leaps toward progress with inventions like the television. However, as children give up reading and playing outdoors to plug into the television set, one might wonder whether it is progress or regression. In "The Pedestrian," Ray Bradbury has chosen to make a statement on the effects of these improvements. Through characterization and imagery, he shows that if mankind advances to the point where society loses its humanity, then mankind may as well cease to exist. Bradbury has elected to reflect the humanity of mankind in the character of Mr. Mead. First of all, Mr. Mead is associated with warm, bright light, which is symbolic of soul. If, during his night walks, people are alerted to his presence, "lights ... click on" (104). In essence, the embodiment of humanity is about. Mr. Mead's house beams "loud yellow illumination" (105). Since literature not only records the history of mankind but also evokes deep feeling among men, it brings this occupation close to the heart of humanity. Third, Mr. Mead is close to nature. Something as simple as taking a walk is "what Mr. Leonard Mead most dearly loved to do" (104). Man is most human when surrounded by the elements. Also, Mr. Mead's shadow is described as the "shadow of a hawk," relating him to a wild and free-spirited bird (104). Last, Mr. Mead is brought into a parallel with the most tender and human holiday observed in the western world when the rush of cold air makes his lungs "blaze like a Chr istmas tree" (104). The combination of these elements makes Mr. Mead a true representative of humanity. As a contrast to the humanity portrayed by Mr. Mead, Bradbury has mirrored the characteristics of progress in the police car. The car, as well as Mr. Mead, is associated with light. The light of the car, however, displays the absence of humanity. Rather than the "warm" light of Mr. Mead, the car possesses a "fierce" and "fiery" light that holds humanity "fixed" like a "museum specimen"--something from the past that should be looked at behind an impersonal plate of glass (105-06). When not holding humanity captive, the car's lights revert to "flashing ... dim lights," showing the absence of any real soul (106). The car is representative of several modern inventions, thereby embodying mankind's advancement. It is itself a robot, and it speaks in a "phonograph voice" through a "radio throat" (105-06).

Racism & Freedom Writers

When I was reading the section of Racism in Multicultural Class, the facilitator’s way of handling the subject â€Å"Racism† reminds me ‘’Freedom Writers† the movie, which is based on a book of Erin Gruwell -a new teacher at Woodrow Wilson High School in Long Beach. She chose the school because of its integration program, but she did not expect a class consist of students who have racist problem. Students splitted into different racial groups, who are ready for fighting, hate each other, but also they hate Erin more than anybody else.On the other hand, senior teachers of the school just ignored the students and they did not make an effort to pave for solving racist problems. Somehow teachers believed that students come to school because of their parents’ insistency and they are not eager to study. Actually, teachers did not want to budge from their privileged positions. When Erin attempted to take a step for the good of students, she is told to do just her job –train them discipline and to obey the rules.Instead being a commanding teacher, Erin wanted to provide a safe space for students to express their feeling, so she asked them to write their own diaries as an assignment, which is not graded. Despite all the resistance, students started to develop trust to her and wrote everything about what it feels to be ‘other’. After they share their narratives and started to communicate with each other.They develop more sensitiveness and interest to other ethnicities by engaging class activities such as visiting the Museum Of Tolerance, and reading the stories from history The Diary of Anne Frank. Erin was happy to see the transformation of them. Before, the students did not have any motivation to success and refuse to interact with other groups because of they do not have hope, but after they develop awareness about tolerance and importance of each life. Erin gave these children what they are not offered befor e. Respect is the key of the racism problems.

Learning Theory and Behaviorism

Learning Theory and BehaviorismOctober 16, 2012 Wundt’s Structuralism: †¢ Goal was to analyze the structure of conscious experience into its elements and components and their associative relationships. It was a form of metal chemistry †¢ Developed of the technique introspection, which requires trained introspectionists to look inward and describe/analyze the contents of their experience to a stimulus word †¢ Edward Titchner brought structuralism to the U. S. Cornell university listing 1000’s of elements of consciousness William James: †¢ James studied with Wundt, but rejected a static description of the elements of the mind. James thought the mind and consciousness to be adaptive function that envolved just as any other adaptive function †¢ Therefore, proper study of the mind is to relate its characteristics to purposeful, adaptive behavior. †¢ Hence the rise of functionalism. James was professor of psychology at Harvard Principles of Psych ology: †¢ James wrote this Titles were stream of thought, memory, reasoning, emotion, will, effects of experience Edward Thorndike: †¢ In the late 1800s at Harvard, drawing from James and functionalism and also Darwin’s ideas of evolution of species and their adaption to environment, he studied the progress cats made in solving a puzzle by learning a desired that is instrumental in bringing about desired outcome †¢ Notion of stimulus-response (reflexive vs. rational) was already firmly in the thinking of leading philosophers at the time, in the field of education Ivan Pavlov: In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel prize for his work on the chemistry of digestive juices in saliva †¢ His work with dogs required gathering large amounts of saliva for chemical analyses. Done through a tube surgically implanted in dog’s salivary gland and then simulating salvation with dried meat powder Unconditional†¦. †¢ Dried meat powder is an unconditional stimu lus 9UCS) in that it always triggers the response of salivating. We call the response unconditional response (UCR).Needs no learning †¢ Many pleasure, pain, and emotional responses and tastes and smells are unconditional Psychic Reflex: †¢ Pavlov and associates observed that dogs would often begin salivating before they were harnessed and before the meat powder †¢ Pavlov switched his path of study this psychic reflex †¢ Studies are among the most famous in psychology. Type of learning he describes is known as â€Å"classical condition† or â€Å"glandular conditioning† Conditional†¦. Stimulus in effect becomes a signal that the dog will be harnessed, presented with the meant, and will be salivating. †¢ The dog must perceive this connection. Its meaning and power as a signal depends on its reliability. Its meaning and power are conditional on its place in time and its frequency in the sequence, becoming conditional stimulus (CS). The psychic reflex becomes a Conditional response. Prior to perception of a connection to the UCS, all events are neutral in meaning with respect to UCS.Conditioning involves responding to a CS with a CR in anticipation of the occurrence of the UCS-UCR pair. Learning: †¢ Conditional response (CR) is the learned response to the conditional stimulus (CS) which gained meaning to the extent it anticipates the UCS-UCR pain. The CR is potentially a adaptive response, a preparatory response †¢ The UCS-UCR pair do not re-occur, then the power of the CS to trigger a CR is weakened. The CS no linger bring about the CR-extinction. Higher order conditioning: The CS must occur fairly closely in time to the UCS-UCR pain- interstimulus interval (CS & UCS) †¢ However once a CS has gained the power to anticipate the UCS, other neutral stimuli close in time to the CS will become conditioned. A CS signal the next CS, which signals the next CS and so on until the original CS signals the UCS-UCR pai n-higher order conditioning. Historical context: †¢ The pressure of universal education brought pressures for psychologists and educators to study the processes of learning †¢ Alfred Binet (advocate from France) developed a test to measure abilities so as to place students in the proper grade.Concepts of ‘intelligence’ and IQ soon followed †¢ Darwin’s theory of evolution suggests that as a species of human beings evolved from lower forms of animal life. Though the gap between animals and human life remained wide in terms of language, thought, and civilization, question was just how intelligent are animals, are they closer to humans are intelligent than animals lower †¢ Industrial revolution; post revolutionary Russia and USA saw an ability to take classless societies and make it a brighter and stronger future, training an efficient workforce.John B. Watson: 1878-1958 †¢ Studied animal intelligence. He sought to move psychology more toward the empirical, deterministic physical sciences †¢ Empirical, means of the senses of implying data used in the science is observable, public, and objectively measured. Determinism implies a search for theories of cause and effect, identification of Aristotle’s immediate cause Behaviorists in control: †¢ Reshaping human society in the US and Soviet Union Philosophical behaviorism: belief that consciousness was an epiphenomenon †¢ Methodological behaviors: belief that observable objective measures of behavior are better over introspective self-report Operant Conditioning: †¢ Skinner says the probability of a response to the correct stimulus is more or less equal to that of any other response to other available stimuli. If the response to a stimulus brings about desired consequence, then the sequence of stimulus-response more likely repeated. Trial and error is as en equal probability for all possible responses on Trial 1 Terms: †¢ Reinforcer: sequence o f stimulus-response consequence; makes stronger the bond between the stimulus and the response †¢ Operant or instrumental response: behavior which bring about the consequence †¢ Skinner prefers to understand reinforcement as that which changes the probability of the response to the stimulus Reinforcer vs. Reinforcement: Reinforce is an event, a consequence that follows the response to a stimulus and is perceived to be connected to the response †¢ Reinforcement is a state of being that arises from the act of consuming or enjoying †¢ Positive reinforce is a positive rewarding consequence to response to a stimulus; all is good and you’ll do it again †¢ Negative reinforer is a painful consequence to the response to a stimulus; decreases probability of the response to that stimulus †¢ In negative reinforcement sequence is stimulus, response, negative reinforcerm escape response(which removes negative reinforce) positive reinforce.Total package: negati ve reinforcement. Probability of an escape/avoidance response is increased and the 1st response is decreased. Primary and secondary reinforcer: †¢ Primary: natural; one that does not have to be learned.Satisfy biological needs like hunger, thirst †¢ Secondary: consequence whose value must be learned through experience; come through socialization and subsequent learning †¢ Primary positive reinforcer: satisfies a natural need (food if you’re hungry, water if thirsty) †¢ Primary negative reinforcer: causes physical pain and discomfort (injury, illness) †¢ Secondary positive reinforcer: satisfies social and psychological needs (good grade, smile, kiss) †¢ Secondary negative reinforcer: socially punishing (failing grade, public slander, rejection letter) Classical and instrumental combined: A primary positive reinforcer=unconditional stimulus that follows some behavioral conditional response to conditional stimulus. †¢ Conditional stimulus is a secondary positive reinforcer Contingency: †¢ connection between a stimulus, response, and a consequence. One perceives the stimulus and performs the response expected †¢ extinction: when stimulus no longer elicits a response b/c reinforcer no longer appears †¢ superstition: one perceives a contingency when in fact there is none †¢ helplessness: perceiving no contingency between a stimulus and a response nd any desirable consequence, making no response †¢ fixed ratio: pattern is predictable †¢ variable ratio: pattern is random Resistance to extinction: †¢ skinner defines strength of learning as how resistance the acquired response to a stimulus is to extinction †¢ variable ratio schedule maintains responding far longer than fixed ratio †¢ fixed interval schedule gives reinforcer tot the last response as a certain interval of time elapses Psychological and emotional disorders A behavioral analysis of psychological & emotional disorders inc ludes the assumption that the symptoms (inappropriate behaviors, thoughts, or emotions) are acquired in a learning environment (i. e. not due to genetics or physiological dysfunctions or unconscious conflicts). †¢ Behavior therapy tries to extinguish the inappropriate responses to stimuli & train appropriate responses. Behavioral analysis of a phobia †¢ Phobia = learned, â€Å"acquired fear† o Intense fear or anxiety reaction to an event, classically conditioned by exposure to frightening, threatening, or painful stimulus. Instrumentally conditioned escape/avoidance behavior that takes very few trials, maybe only one trial to learn Obsessive compulsive disorder †¢ Obsessive state = intense drive state, often accompanied by images, thoughts, memories, desires, etc. related to drive state an identity †¢ Compulsive = behavior that corrects for or deals w/ the threat to the driving identity. Ritualized by repetition & success at keeping anxiety at bay. †¢ Compulsive behavior may originate in two ways: o 1.Person once praised for something & now seeks praise to maintain good feeling o 2. Person once punished for something & thus becomes anxious when this event occurs and does whatever to avoid punishment Behavioral analysis of anxiety and conflict †¢ The conflict of drives, stimuli, responses & consequences will result in indecision, inefficiency, & anxiety. Dollard & miller list the following: †¢ An approach-approach conflict: where two mutually exclusive positive consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli.The greater the emotional importance of the choice & the greater the finality (or temporal impact) of the choice, the greater the conflict: o Choosing whom to marry vs. choosing which friend to call o Choosing a book to read vs. choosing a film to watch on a weekend night o Choosing a car/house to buy vs. choosing a brand of frozen pizza to buy in the store †¢ An avoidance-avoidance conflict: where two mu tually exclusive negative consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli. Resolved in a manner similar to approach-approach. Choosing to cope with knee pain or having knee surgery o Choosing to write a paper or study for a test o Choosing any math course †¢ An approach-avoidance conflict: where two aspects of the â€Å"same† stimulus are in contradiction, one positive, one negative. o Enjoying the company of a friend, who also tends to get loud & obnoxious at parties. The conflict arises when the friend asks you to go to the party with her/him. o Contemplating a trip to Europe, but you have a fear of flying Behavioral analysis of anxiety & conflict The tension in approach-avoidance conflict in interpersonal relationships often forces a person to create a â€Å"safe-zone† in which, on the one hand, the person is not so far away from the other such that one needs to approach, but yet, on the other hand, the person is not so close that one needs to avoid the o ther. †¢ Often the zone is defined or verbalized in terms of emotional involvement, interpersonal distance, intimacy, time together, mode of communication, etc. â€Å"were just friends†¦Ã¢â‚¬  meaning not lovers, cousins, or strangers. The safe zone evolves. It is negotiated b/t the two persons in the relationship to their mutual satisfaction, though true mutuality is often difficult to achieve. Also, conditions may change it over time, especially due to factors such as distance, other relationships, new info, etc. Depression †¢ Result of a generalized learned helplessness. †¢ Helplessness learned when most instrumental escape or avoidance responses to a primary or secondary negative reinforce fail to bring about relief through a cessation of the punishment, discomfort.Inactivity/apathy describe lack of instrumental responses; pain, numbness, sadness are the classically conditioned emotional responses. Dissociative disorder †¢ Dissociative disorders, such as dissociative identity disorder (split personality) involves learning a new repertory of behaviors, thoughts, & emotions that are appropriate (and therefore reinforced) in a new environment along side of a previously learned repertory of behaviors, thoughts and emotions that are appropriate in a different prior environment †¢ Prior environment associated w/ punishmentSchizophrenia †¢ double bind theory of schizophrenia: child raised in a home environment of confusing/contradictory messages from at least one volatile, toxic parent. The child’s behavior is not predictably right/good, wrong/bad. The child grows up never sure or relaxed, but stressed and anxious. Child emerges chronic mistrust of his or her ability to behave, think, etc. he/she learns to behave as if disconnected from reality B. F. Skinner †¢ wrote beyond freedom and dignity – we’re already living in a behavioral society.